plate no. 5959
The Course of Empire: The Savage State
Thomas Cole, 1834
recreation guide
Thomas Cole’s *The Course of Empire: The Savage State* (1834) is a foundational work of American Romanticism, depicting a pristine, untouched landscape that serves as the first stage in a five-part narrative series. The artwork is distinctive for its dramatic use of light and shadow (chiaroscuro) to evoke the sublime power of nature, a hallmark of the Romantic movement which emphasized wilder landscapes and emotional intensity over classical order (Source 5). The painting utilizes oil on canvas, a medium chosen for its capacity to produce richer, denser colors and a wider range from light to dark, allowing for the deep atmospheric effects seen in the twilight setting (Source 7). Cole’s approach aligns with the tradition of landscape painting where the sky and weather are integral to the composition, creating a coherent view that balances natural scenery with narrative implication (Source 6).
estimated time
40-60 hours over 8-12 sessions
materials
8 items
steps
6 in sequence
materials
| item | purpose | modern equivalent |
|---|---|---|
| Oil-primed canvas | Support for the oil paint layers | Pre-primed linen or cotton canvas |
| Linseed oil | Primary binder for pigments; provides flexibility and rich color | Refined linseed oil |
| Turpentine | Thinner for initial layers and cleaning | Odorless mineral spirits or pure gum turpentine |
| Ultramarine | Key blue pigment for sky and shadows, noted in historical methods | Synthetic ultramarine blue |
| White lead or Titanium White | For highlights and mixing tints | Titanium white (safer modern equivalent) |
| Black pigment (e.g., Ivory Black) | For shadows and grisaille underpainting | Ivory black or Mars black |
| Red and Yellow earth pigments | For glazing and scumbling tones, as per traditional methods | Venetian red, Yellow Ochre |
| Varnish (e.g., Dammar) | For final protection and enhancing depth of glazes | Natural resin varnish |
preparation
surface prep
The canvas should be prepared with a ground that allows for the layering techniques described in historical oil painting practices. While specific priming recipes for Cole are not detailed in the sources, the general practice of the period involved preparing a surface that could support multiple layers of oil paint, potentially including a gesso or oil-based ground to ensure adhesion and prevent oil starvation (Source 7).
underdrawing
Sources do not explicitly describe Cole’s specific underdrawing methods for this work. However, consistent with the Romantic landscape tradition, a loose charcoal or thinned oil sketch would likely be used to establish the composition’s dramatic lighting and structural elements before applying paint (Source 6).
underpainting
A grisaille (monochrome underpainting) is recommended, following the method described in Source 1. This involves painting the composition in shades of gray (using black, white, and potentially ultramarine) to establish the tonal values and chiaroscuro effects before introducing color. This technique allows the artist to focus on the 'true gradation of light' and shadow relationships inherent in the dramatic landscape (Source 1, Source 3).
color palette
Deep Blue/Black
Ultramarine, Black, White
Shadows and sky, consistent with Reynolds' method cited in Source 1
Warm Earth Tones
Red and Yellow ochres, mixed with oil
Glazing and scumbling to add warmth and depth to the landscape, as per Source 1
Cool Grays
Black, White, Ultramarine
Atmospheric effects and distant elements, leveraging simultaneous contrast principles (Source 2)
composition
The composition likely emphasizes the vastness of the landscape and the dramatic interplay of light and dark, characteristic of Romanticism’s focus on the sublime (Source 5). The sky and weather are integral to the mood, with the lighting designed to evoke the 'transitoriness of human life' and the power of nature (Source 5). Specific compositional details are not described in the sources, but the general approach involves arranging natural elements into a coherent view that highlights the spiritual and emotional impact of the scene (Source 6).
step by step
underdrawing→underpainting→first pass→refining→finishing→varnishing
underdrawing
step 01
Sketch the main compositional elements lightly on the primed canvas, focusing on the placement of light and shadow areas.
Tip — Ensure the dramatic lighting effects are planned early, as they are central to the Romantic style.
Compositional sketching
underpainting
step 02
Apply a grisaille underpainting using black, white, and ultramarine to establish the tonal values. Focus on the chiaroscuro effects to create depth and drama.
Tip — Allow this layer to dry completely before proceeding to color glazes.
Grisaille
first pass
step 03
Begin glazing with transparent coats of red and yellow tones over the dried grisaille. Use oil as a medium initially.
Tip — Apply thin, transparent layers to build up color depth without obscuring the underlying tonal structure.
Glazing
refining
step 04
Use scumbling (semi-opaque painting) to add texture and cool tones, particularly in shadowed areas. This technique allows the underlying painting to show through, creating a 'grey bloom' effect.
Tip — Be mindful of the 'coldness' that scumbling can introduce when used over darker grounds.
Scumbling
finishing
step 05
Refine the color contrasts, paying attention to simultaneous contrast effects. Adjust tones to ensure that adjacent colors enhance each other’s intensity and harmony.
Tip — Check for color fatigue and ensure that the modifications of light and color are accurately represented.
Simultaneous Contrast
varnishing
step 06
Apply a final varnish to protect the painting and enhance the depth of the glazes. Use a mixture of varnish and oil if needed for specific effects.
Tip — Ensure the painting is completely dry before varnishing to avoid trapping moisture.
Varnishing
critical techniques
Glazing and Scumbling
Used to build up color and texture in layers, allowing for rich, deep tones and atmospheric effects. This method was practiced by old masters and is essential for achieving the luminous quality of Romantic landscapes.
Chiaroscuro
The dramatic contrast between light and dark is used to create depth and emotional impact, a key feature of Romanticism.
Simultaneous Contrast
Understanding how adjacent colors affect each other helps in harmonizing the composition and accurately depicting the modifications of light on the landscape.
common pitfalls
- →Applying thick, opaque paint too early, which can obscure the tonal structure established in the grisaille.
- →Ignoring the effects of simultaneous contrast, leading to muddy or inaccurate color relationships.
- →Overusing scumbling, which can introduce unwanted coldness in shadowed areas.
- →Failing to allow layers to dry completely, which can lead to cracking or mixing of unintended colors.
what the sources don't tell us
Where the corpus is silent, we say so rather than guess. These are the gaps a complete recreation guide would normally cover that our source passages don't.
- ·Specific pigment recipes used by Thomas Cole for this painting.
- ·Detailed underdrawing techniques specific to Cole’s practice.
- ·Exact proportions of mediums (oil, varnish, turpentine) used in each layer.
- ·Specific compositional sketches or studies for *The Savage State*.
grounded in
The technical procedure in this guide traces to the following classical art-instruction texts.
The Practice of Oil Painting↗
- COLOURING A MONOCHROME — applied to Glazing and scumbling techniques, grisaille underpainting
Laws of Contrast of Colour↗
- 315-318 — applied to Simultaneous contrast, color harmony, and light modification
- 6 — applied to Chiaroscuro and gradation of light
cross-referenced from
Named facts about this artwork and artist were checked against these reference pages.
Wikipedia: Romanticism↗
- part 22 — applied to Romantic landscape characteristics, emphasis on sublime and wild nature
Wikipedia: Landscape painting↗
- part 1 — applied to Composition of landscape elements, role of sky and weather
Wikipedia: Oil painting↗
- part 1 — applied to Materials, advantages of oil paint, layering techniques
Read more about the corpus on the sources page and how the guides are built on the methods page.
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